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Email: Peter Collier

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Survey Review 45, No 329. March 2013

1. ZigBee network positioning with support of Real-Time Kinematic GPS and terrestrial measurements
Mok, E; Yeung, Y K

Ad hoc network based positioning is particularly useful when fixed positioning infrastructures are unavailable, or were destroyed in a disaster. It can also be used as an augmented system to continuously provide spatial information when satellite positioning systems fail. ZigBee is an emerging wireless technology based on the IEEE 802·15·4 standard. Its advantages include low cost, low power consumption and license free operating frequencies. In addition to applications for low volume data transmissions, some ZigBee modules such as the TI/Chipcon CC2431 already have a built-in location engine for positioning applications. One of the main challenges in ZigBee positioning is to obtain the coordinates of the ZigBee reference nodes that form a network of control points for position fixing. This is particularly challenging when the network is continuously expanding and covers areas with various obstructions, and when the control point coordinates of newly covered areas need to be defined in the ZigBee system. In this paper, the ZigBee wireless technology and its positioning concept is introduced, followed by an accuracy test along a long and narrow corridor and of a proposal of an algorithm for a quick establishment of a ZigBee network. Our indoor investigations show that the ZigBee positioning can generally achieve a better than 5 m accuracy, that a ZigBee network can be efficiently and effectively established with the support of Networked Transport of RTCM via Internet Protocol based Real-Time Kinematic GPS (NTRIP RTK GPS) and conventional measurements and that the network node connectivity status can be monitored by a modelling algorithm of the node connectivity matrix.

Further information:
http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/maney/sre/2013/00000045/00000329/art00001

2. Real time dynamic precise point positioning with mixture filtering
Nie, J L; Wu, F M; Guo, C X; Cheng, C L; Liu, H; Jiang, G W; Wang, B

The linearisation of non-linear observation equations in precise point positioning (PPP) can always bring out additional errors. To weaken such linearisation errors and improve the performance of unscented Kalman filtering (UKF), a kind of mixture filtering based on combined UKF and extended Kalman filtering (EKF) is presented in this contribution. First, the PPP solutions estimated on the base of EKF are taken as predicted information for UKF, which can avoid the impossibility of matrix decomposition during UKF implementation; second, the accuracy of PPP solutions can be optimised by rerunning the UKF. An airborne test is used to demonstrate the performance of the new mixture filtering concept. The experimental results show that the accuracy of dynamic PPP with mixture filtering is better than their counterparts as estimated with EKF only.

Further information:
http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/maney/sre/2013/00000045/00000329/art00002

3. Iteratively reweighted total least squares: a robust estimation in errors-in-variables models
Mahboub, V; Amiri-Simkooei, A R; Sharifi, M A

In this contribution, the iteratively reweighted total least squares (IRTLS) method is introduced as a robust estimation in errors-in-variables (EIV) models. The method is a follow-up to the iteratively reweighted least squares (IRLS) that is applied to the Gauss–Markov and/or Gauss–Helmert models, when the observations are corrupted by gross errors (outliers). In a relatively new class of models, namely EIV models, IRLS or other known robust estimation methods introduced in geodetic literature cannot be directly applied. This is because the vector of observations or the coefficient matrix of the EIV model may be falsified by gross errors. The IRTLS can then be a good alternative as a robust estimation method in the EIV models. This method is based on the algorithm of weighted total least squares problem according to the traditional Lagrange approach to optimise the target function of this problem. Also a new weight function is introduced for IRTLS approach in order to obtain better results. A simulation study and an empirical example give insight into the robustness and the efficiency of the procedure proposed.

Further information:
http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/maney/sre/2013/00000045/00000329/art00003

4. The land administration domain model (LADM) as the reference model for the Cyprus land information system (CLIS)
Elia, E A; Zevenbergen, J A; Lemmen, C H J; van Oosterom, P J M

In this paper, the enhancement of the data model of the Cyprus land information system (CLIS), with the adoption of the land administration domain model (LADM) is examined. The CLIS was established in 1999, within the Department of Lands and Surveys, to support the operation of the Cyprus cadastral system and has met the majority of its initial set goals. It is however now broadly accepted that the CLIS should be improved and upgraded, and a new data model should be introduced to facilitate the manipulation and provision of data to internal and external users/customers in a more effective way. The need to enhance the CLIS coincides with the introduction of the LADM, which is under development within the Technical Committee 211 of the International Organization for Standardization and identified as ISO 19152. The LADM provides an abstract, conceptual schema with three basic packages: parties (such as people and organisations), administrative rights, responsibilities and restrictions (such as property rights) and spatial units (such as parcels, buildings and networks), with the latter having one subpackage: surveying and spatial representation [6]. [Note: In this moment (January 2012), the LADM is at the development stage of Final Draft International Standard]. In this paper, the basic entities of the CLIS are presented and restructured, in a way to comply with the LADM. After analysing the characteristics of LADM, it is concluded that this is compatible with CLIS, and can be used as a data model framework for CLIS’s upgrade. Thus, the Cyprus country profile is proposed. The adoption of the LADM is a great opportunity for the Department of Lands and Surveys to introduce an International Organization for Standardization standard model, based on model driven architecture, and to gain all the benefits derived from such a movement. Such benefits include the improvement in the effectiveness and the efficiency of the current system and the expansion of the services provided by CLIS to the broader land administration system and to the Cyprus community. The new functionality includes: better structuring of the rights, responsibilities and restrictions (and related source documents); better fitting in the information infrastructure, both national (e.g. valuation, taxation, building, address and person registrations) and international (e.g. INSPIRE cadastral parcels); and future capabilities for representing three-dimensional spatial units (e.g. legal spaces related to apartment or utility infrastructure).

Further information:
http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/maney/sre/2013/00000045/00000329/art00004

5. Research on least squares adjustment of high precision network of triangulateration
Chen, B F; Yue, J P; Shi, K

The Helmert method has been widely used in data processing for high precision network which consists of different types of observations. For triangulaterations, the analyses show that the iterative calculation cannot be achieved smoothly while applying the initial coordinates of the unknown points, which come from the direct field observations. One reason lies in that model errors may arise from the non-linear observation functions’ linearisation using Taylor’s theorem. While that problem could be avoided when using the traditional adjustment solutions of the unknown points as the initials in high precision networks. Moreover, if enough redundant observations have been measured, improved two-time-weighting estimation (ITTWE) will solve the problem more conveniently and efficiently, from which weight matrix determined by the posteriori estimation of the electric distance measurement instrument. The data processing results from a real nuclear power plant project show consistency between Helmert and ITTWE method.

Further information:
http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/maney/sre/2013/00000045/00000329/art00005

6. Statistical testing of directions observations independence
Kregar, K; Turk, G; Kogoj, D

Independence of observations is often assumed when adjusting geodetic network. Unlike the distance observations, no dependence of environmental conditions is known for horizontal direction observations. In order to determine the dependence of horizontal direction observations, we established test geodetic network of a station and four observation points. Measurements of the highest possible accuracy were carried out using Leica TS30 total station along with precise prisms GPH1P. Two series of hundred sets of angles were measured, with the first one in bad observation conditions. Using different methods, i.e. variance–covariance matrices, x2 test and analyses of time series, the independence of measured directions, reduced directions and horizontal angles were tested. The results show that the independence of horizontal direction observations is not obvious and certainly not in poor conditions. In this case, it would be appropriate for geodetic network adjustments to use variance–covariance matrix calculated from measurements instead of diagonal variance–covariance matrix.

Further information:
http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/maney/sre/2013/00000045/00000329/art00006

7. Evolution of land registration and cadastral survey systems in Sri Lanka
Divithure, H; Tang, C

This paper reviews the evolutionary process of land registration and cadastral survey systems in Sri Lanka. It is a case study from Sri Lanka in the southern part of Asia. This case is of relevance to other countries in the region as they share common experiences in the extensive periods of western power each country’s recent history. The study investigates how diverse policy objectives, evident in various stages of Sri Lankan history, have led to evolutionary change in the processes of land registration and in cadastral survey systems in Sri Lanka. Four prominent historical stages are discussed: the ancient Sinhalese kingdom (before 1505), the period of Portuguese rule (1505‐1658), the period of Dutch rule (1658‐1796) and the period of British rule (1796‐1948). It is evident that the power shifts between different successive regimes with varying land policy objectives have greatly influenced the evolution of the land registration and cadastral survey systems in the country.

Further information:
http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/maney/sre/2013/00000045/00000329/art00007

8. Metaheuristic optimisation approach for designing reliable and robust geodetic networks
Yetkin, M

Robustness analysis is a combination of reliability and geometrical strength analysis using a strain technique. It refers to the ability of a network to resist deformations caused by the largest undetectable blunders. The displacement of each point in the network is computed in order to measure the robustness of the network. This paper tries to optimally design a geodetic network in the sense of high reliability and geometrical strength. For this purpose, a metaheuristic method called the shuffled frog leaping algorithm (SFLA) is used to solve the first order design problem in which the geometric configuration of the network is optimised. Such algorithms have been developed to determine high quality solutions to complex optimisation problems. The efficiency of the method is demonstrated using a synthetic network example. The results show that the displacements can be decreased by maximising the minimum redundancy number in the network. This procedure can yield both reliable and robust networks.

Further information:
http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/maney/sre/2013/00000045/00000329/art00008

9. Studies on renovation of cadastral sheets for urbanisation
Yalcin, G; Bol, A; Eski, C

In this article, the renovation of the insufficient cadastral sheets in Turkey is investigated. After the information on cadastre and renovation is presented in detail, the samples are given from different villages in Center Town of Osmaniye in the line of the renovation process sequence to enrich the application. Osmaniye is a new and developing city. Therefore, it has a rapid urbanisation. It is sure that the accurate and updated maps are needed in the environment of this rapid urbanisation. Also, this renovation is an important step for a strong urbanisation and land information system with actual and accurate data.

Further information:
http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/maney/sre/2013/00000045/00000329/art00009

Survey Review 45, No 328. January 2013

1. Measuring meteorological data along the ray path of a distance meter with an ultra-light aircraft
Savšek, S; Gregorn, Z; Ambrožič, T

When measuring distances, the density of the air that electromagnetic waves travel through is important. In practice, the meteorological parameters usually measured at the endpoints of the measured lines, which may be oversimplified for long distances. Thus, the basic idea behind our research was to measure the meteorological parameters along the path of the measuring beam through the air by using an ultra-light aircraft flying at low speed. The test measurements were carried out on two lines of a small geodynamic network of the Coalmine Velenje, where the observations are used to determine displacements due to mining in this area. Three flights were done in different conditions of the atmosphere. Within one flight, we conducted two independent measurements of two lines. In this way, we wanted to obtain more precise data on the actual conditions of the atmosphere. The aim of our analysis is to critically evaluate the calculations found in literature and to find an optimal way on how to account for the meteorological parameters in the calculation of the actual atmosphere when measuring longer distances in difficult measuring conditions. We expect that the obtained data, which reflect the actual conditions in the atmosphere, can have a significant influence on the measuring of longer distances.

Further information:
http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/maney/sre/2013/00000045/00000328/art00001

2. Crustal deformation analysis by using collocate model based on regional tectonic features
Zhao, L H; Yang, Y X; Wang, Q L

Collocation method, when applied to crustal deformation analysis, can estimate the deformation trend reliably not only of the observed stations but also of the unobserved stations. If there are faults or hidden faults in the area being researched, conventional collocation, however, is not applicable to deformation analysis because of the discontinuous deformation. Two alternative collocation methods are proposed. One is based on regional geological tectonic background (called geo_LSC), which divides the area roughly according to geological information and then establishes collocation models respectively in each sub-division. The stations near the boundary are assigned to reasonable sub-division by test of confidence interval of deformation parameter. The other method is based on robust collocation with high breakdown point (called geo_RC). Since the local deformation or abnormal observations may influence the reliability of modelling, robust collocation with high breakdown point is first proposed to calculate the model parameters which are not disturbed by abnormal measurements. A simulated example and a practical example are given. The results show that the proposed methods are effective in actual deformation analysis.

Further information:
http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/maney/sre/2013/00000045/00000328/art00002

3. Deferred monumentation and the shakedown factor
Goodwin, D

Any guarantee of secure title is only as good as our ability to clarify what land is being spoken about. However, in countries where the majority of boundaries are straight lines between marked turning points, experience shows that boundary features such as fences and walls are not always erected in sympathy with corner boundary marks. In other words, legally speaking, what right-holders see is not always what they get. This article explores two questions: first, whether the placing of boundary corner marks should be deferred until occupation lines have shaken down to positions mutually agreed by adjoining right-holders, and second, whether boundary marks should be placed only in specified conflict cases. For the first question, a case study of high density suburbs in Zimbabwe is considered, where legal boundary corner marks are typically placed some years after physical boundary features have been erected. This practice achieves a close congruence between physical and legal boundaries but also has drawbacks that make it difficult to justify deferring monumentation unless the later surveys are done at very low cost. The second question draws on the case of New Zealand, in particular the responses made to a proposal in 2007 to mark boundaries only in conflict cases but also to the implications for disaster situations offered by the Canterbury earthquake. The article finishes with a more global discussion stemming from the two case studies, and concludes that boundary marks placed early on in the development process serve a public as well as a private good function from early on in a suburb’s development through to its more mature phases, especially when related to a network of well defined survey marks. It is further concluded that boundary marks with well defined centres fulfil an important role in densifying urban survey control networks.

Further information:
http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/maney/sre/2013/00000045/00000328/art00003

4. Local to ETRS89 datum transformation for Slovenia: triangle-based transformation using virtual tie points
Berk, S; Komadina, Ž

The present paper presents a geodetic datum transformation between the old and new national coordinate reference systems of Slovenia. The basis for transformation is a set of about 2000 points coordinated in both systems. Virtual tie points are used, which form a regular triangular network covering the entire country. In order to enable extrapolation, the network was expanded, thereby reducing its density. Coordinate shifts between both coordinate systems were determined using best-fit transformation in the immediate neighbourhood of each virtual tie point. Weights assigned to these points depend upon their density and distance from the virtual tie point. The results prove significant advantages of the proposed model: high accuracy, minimisation of distortions, continuity and reversibility of transformation. Therefore, the model has been chosen for transformation of all spatial databases which continuously cover the entire territory of the country and require transformation accuracy of better than one metre.

Further information:
http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/maney/sre/2013/00000045/00000328/art00004

5. Thermal3DImage
Abdelhafiz, A

Energy saving is an important issue. Heating and cooling systems in buildings consume too much energy. Therefore new regulations have appeared in Europe to control the energy consumed by such systems. Building insulation efficiency is our concern here, not the heating or cooling systems themselves. Thermography is a practical tool for checking insulation efficiency. This tool requires the geometry and visible view of the building concerned, to compute correctly the amount of heat emitted and then check it against the accepted limits. In this paper, an integration technique for the thermal image, the laser scanner point cloud/mesh and the digital image is introduced. After registering and fusing the three data sets a Themal3DImage is created. An evaluation test was performed and it was found that registering the thermal and visual images using two-dimensional transformation equations provided reliable results.

Further information:
http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/maney/sre/2013/00000045/00000328/art00005

6. Local variance factors in deformation analysis of non-homogenous monitoring networks
Kamiński, W; Nowel, K

This paper proposes a modification of the classical deformation analysis algorithm for non-homogeneous (e.g. linear-angular) monitoring networks. The basis for the proposed solution is the idea of local variance factors. The theoretical discussion was complemented with an example of its application on a simulated horizontal monitoring network. The obtained results confirm the usefulness of the proposed solution.

Further information:
http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/maney/sre/2013/00000045/00000328/art00006

7. An improved cascading ambiguity resolution (CAR) method with Galileo multiple frequencies
Ji, S Y; Chen, W; Ding, X L; Chen, Y Q; Zhao, C M; Hu, C W

Modernised GPS will provide navigation signals in three frequency bands and Europe's Galileo system will provide navigation signals in four. When more carrier-phase frequency bands are available, more frequency combinations with longer equivalent wavelengths can be formed. If carrier phase ambiguity can be resolved quickly, the carrier phase measurements are eventually converted to ‘pseudorange’ type measurements, but with much higher measurement precision. Cascade ambiguity resolution (CAR) and integer least squares (ILS) methods are widely used for multiple frequency ambiguity resolution. However, there is a weakness in the CAR method. When trying to fix ambiguities of one combination, only part of all available measurements is used in CAR and this is the reason why the success rate of CAR is lower than that of ILS. In this paper, we propose an algorithm to improve CAR for multiple frequency ambiguity resolution. Instead of directly using formed combination, original carrier phase measurements of E1, E5a, E5b and E6 are used in every step while solving for the ambiguities with different combinations. Based on simulated Galileo data, ambiguity resolution performance with the improved CAR method is investigated and compared with the ILS method. It has shown that the performance of the proposed method is better than the ILS method in terms of time required for ambiguity resolution and misfixed rate. Also, we have adapted this method for long baselines. The ambiguity resolution performances for baselines of different distances are investigated.

Further information:
http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/maney/sre/2013/00000045/00000328/art00007

8. Factors affecting the estimation of GPS receiver instrumental biases
Kao, S; Tu, Y; Chen, W; Weng, D J; Ji, S Y

Global positioning system (GPS) has been widely used to investigate the ionosphere through the estimation of the total electron content (TEC) and its distributions in space. One of the important factors affecting the ionosphere TEC estimation accuracy is the hardware differential code biases (DCBs) inherited in both GPS satellites and receivers. This paper investigates various factors affecting GPS receiver instrumental bias estimation accuracy. Through a number of designed tests, we concluded that the most important factor is the ionosphere model accuracy. Some of large daily bias variations of receiver DCB detected by other studies, such as receivers in low latitude regions, are not due to the DCB changes, but the estimation errors. The DCB estimation values can vary significantly for different ionospheric models and different sizes of networks. For example, the receiver DCB values obtained from the global and the station- specific models exhibit difference from −2·5 to 14·3 TEC unit (TECU) for different stations. Different data processing methods also contribute to DCB estimation errors. The results from smoothing and non-smoothing GPS observation show that the difference of DCB reaches up to 6·8 TECU for some stations, with the mean difference of 3 TECU. On the other hand, the elevation cut-off angle does not play an import role in ionospheric delay estimation. For elevation cut-off angles from 10 to 30°, our tests show that the DCB estimation differences are <0·4 TECU.

Further information:
http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/maney/sre/2013/00000045/00000328/art00008

9. Refraction corrections from complex measurements of atmospheric parameters for electronic tacheometry
Vshivkova, O V; Kalugin, I V

In this paper, a new method for the estimation of the effect of the atmosphere is presented. The proposed procedure is based on the complex application of geodetic and meteorological measurements. The field test showed the efficiency of this method for electronic tacheometry. The average standard deviation of the elevation differences equalled 8 mm over 1 km and the number of additional measurements required is minimal. An electronic gradientometer developed by the authors was used as a mobile instrument for the measurement of atmospheric parameters.

Further information:
http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/maney/sre/2013/00000045/00000328/art00009